Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Basic Concepts

1.3 History of MPI

2. Physics

2.1 Magnetism

2.2 Magnetic Mat'ls

2.3 Magnetic Domains

2.4 Magnetic Fields

2.5 Electromag. Fields

2.6 Field From a Coil

2.7 Mag Properties

2.8 Hysteresis Loop

2.9 Permeability

2.10 Field Orientation

2.11 Magnetization of Mat'ls

2.12 Magnetizing Current

2.13 Longitudinal Mag Fields

2.14 Circular Mag Fields

2.15 Demagnetization

2.16 Measuring Mag Fields

3. Equipment &Materials

3.1 Portable Equipment

3.2 Stationary Equipment

3.3 Lights

3.4 Field Strength Indicators

3.5 Magnetic Particles

3.6 Suspension Liquids

4. Testing Practices

4.1 Dry Particles

4.2 Wet Suspension

4.3 Magnetic Rubber

4.4 Continuous &Residual Magnetization

4.5 Field Direction &Intensity

5. Process Control

5.1 Particle Concentration

5.2 Suspension Contamination

5.3 Electrical System

5.4 Lighting

5.5 Eye Considerations

6. Example Indications

6.1 Visible, Dry Indications

6.2 Fluorescent, Wet Indications

1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for defect detection. MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.

MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective.

The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings, forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.

1.2 Basic Concepts

In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be considered as a combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage testing and visual testing. Consider a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters the at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounter the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux leakage field.

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can detect.

1.3 History of MPI(Magnetic Particle Inspection)

Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter to itself. The ancient Greeks were the first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later on Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and gasses were affected by magnetism, but only a few responded to a noticeable extent.

The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic compass along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to locate flaws in the barrels by monitoring the needle of the compass. This was a form of nondestructive testing but the term was not commonly used until some time after World War I.

In the early 1920’s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles (colored metal shavings) could be used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and extend beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine shop. He noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were being held by a magnetic chuck while being ground, formed patterns on the face of the parts which corresponded to the cracks in the surface. Applying a fine ferromagnetic powder to the parts caused a build up of powder over flaws and formed a visible indication. The image shows a 1928 Electyro-Magnetic Steel Testing Device (MPI) made by the Equipment and Engineering Company Ltd. (ECO) of Strand, England.

In the early 1930’s, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) was quickly replacing the oil-and-whiting method (an early form of the liquid penetrant inspection) as the method of choice by the railroad to inspect steam engine boilers, wheels, axles, and the tracks. Today, the MPI inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large variety of manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to check materials such as steel bar stock for seams and other flaws prior to investing machining time during the manufacturing of a component. Critical automotive components are inspected for flaws after fabrication to ensure that defective parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to inspect some highly loaded components that have been in-service for a period of time. For example, many components of high performance race cars are inspected whenever the engine, drive train and other systems are overhauled. MPI is also used to evaluate the integrity of structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical structures.

2. Physics

2.1 Magnetism

Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of magnets range from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torque in electric motors. Most people are familiar with the general properties of magnets but are less familiar with the source of magnetism. The traditional concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is know as a dipole. The term "magnetic field" simply describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy within that volume. This change in energy can be detected and measured. The location where a magnetic field can be detected exiting or entering a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never been detected in isolation but always occur in pairs and, thus, the name dipole. Therefore, a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second equal but opposite magnetic pole on the other.

A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and south pole at the other. A magnetic field can be measured leaving the dipole at the north pole and returning the magnet at the south pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of one. This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the source of magnetism lies in the basic building block of all matter...the atom.

The Source of Magnetism

All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce a magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.

This may be hard to visualize on a subatomic scale but consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The magnetic field can be detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle, which is another example of a dipole.

Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way. This will be explored more in the next section.

2.2 Magnetic Mat'ls

;Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials

When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction. However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of factors such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins. These are the electron orbital motion, the change in orbital motion caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.

In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Each electron in a pair spins in the opposite direction. So when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause there magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field. Most materials can be classified as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or paramagnetic.

Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are solids with all paired electron and, therefore, no permanent net magnetic moment per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron orbits under the influence of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.

Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons and from the realignment of the electron orbits caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these domains, large numbers of atoms moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected using the magnetic particle method.

2.3 Magnetic Domains

Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms carry a magnetic moment but also because the material is made up of small regions known as magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains can be detected using Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) and images of the domains like the one shown below can be constructed.

	Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) image showing the magnetic domains in a piece of heat treated carbon steel.

During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials are said to be characterized by "spontaneous magnetization" since they obtain saturation magnetization in each of the domains without an external magnetic field being applied. Even though the domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of magnetism because the domains develop themselves are randomly oriented relative to each other.

Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or by passing electrical current through the material. Some or all of the domains can become aligned. The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to be magnetically saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material		Magnetized Material

2.4 Magnetic Field Characteristics

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet

As discussed previously a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space. The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below. A magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force produced by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic field exits the material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole along the length of the magnet. It should be noted that the magnetic lines of force exist in three-dimensions but are only seen in two dimensions in the image.

It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the exit poles are concentrated is called the magnet's north pole and the area where the entrance poles are concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.

Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets

Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is the horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles just like a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from pole to pole just like in the bar magnet. However, since the poles are located closer together and a more direct path exists for the lines of flux to travel between the poles, the magnetic field is concentrated between the poles.

If a bar magnet was placed across the end of a horseshoe magnet or if a magnet was formed in the shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force would not even need to enter the air. The value of such a magnet where the magnetic field is completely contained with the material probably has limited use. However, it is important to understand that the magnetic field can flow in loop within a material when the concept of circular magnetism is later covered.

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:

They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles. In a single bar magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form closed loop from pole to pole.

They never cross one another.

They all have the same strength.

Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of higher permeability to an area of lower permeability.

Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles.

They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs. They flow from the south pole to the north pole within the material and north pole to south pole in air.

2.5 Electromagnetic Fields

Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current flowing through a wire caused a nearby compass to deflect. This indicated that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic field. Oersted studied the nature of the magnetic field around the long straight wire. He found that the magnetic field existed in circular form around the wire and that the intensity of the field was directly proportional to the amount of current carried by the wire. He also found that the strength of the field was strongest close to the wire and diminished with distance from the conductor until it could no longer be detected. In most conductors, the magnetic field exists only as long as the current is flowing (i.e. an electrical charge is in motion). However, in ferromagnetic materials the electric current will cause some or all of the magnetic domains to align and a residual magnetic field will remain.

Oersted also noticed that the direction of the magnetic field was dependent on the direction of the electrical current in the wire. A three-dimensional representation of the magnetic field is shown below. There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the magnetic field around a conductor. It is called the right-hand rule. If a person grasps a conductor in ones right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field.

A word of caution about the right-hand rule
For the right-hand rule to work, one important thing that must remembered about the direction of current flow. Standard convention has current flowing from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This convention is credited to Benjamin Franklin who theorized that electric current was due to a positive charge moving from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. However, it was later discovered that it is the movement of the negatively charged electron that is responsible for electrical current. Rather than changing several centuries of theory and equations, Franklin's convention is still used today.

2.6 Field From a Coil

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic field circling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the other loops to produce a concentrated field down the center of the coil. A loosely wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound tighter.

The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also with each loop that is added to the coil. A long straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please be aware that the field outside the coil is weak and is not suitable for magnetize ferromagnetic materials.

2.7 Quantifying Magnetic Properties
(Magnetic Field Strength, Flux Density, Total Flux and Magnetization)

Until now, only the qualitative features of the magnetic field have been discussed. However, it is necessary to be able to measure and express quantitatively the various characteristics of magnetism. Unfortunately, a number of unit conventions are in use as shown below. SI units will be used in this material. The advantage of using SI units is that they are traceable back to an agreed set of four base units - meter, kilogram, second, and Ampere.

Quantity		SI Units (Sommerfeld)	SI Units (Kennelly)	CGS Units (Gaussian)
Field	H	A/m	A/m	oersteds
Flux Density (Magnetic Induction)	B	tesla	tesla	gauss
Flux	f	weber	weber	maxwell
Magnetization	M	A/m	-	erg.Oe-1.cm-3

The units for magnetic field strength H are ampere/meter. A magnetic field strength of 1 ampere/meter is produced at the center of a single circular conductor of diameter 1 meter carrying a steady current of 1 ampere.

The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic flux density B. The flux density or magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit. One tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m). From these units it can be seen that the flux density is a measure of the force applied to a particle by the magnetic field. The Gauss is CGS unit for flux density and is commonly used by US industry. One gauss represents one line of flux passing through one square centimeter of air oriented 90 degrees to flux flow.

The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux f. The strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains that are aligned within a material. The total flux is simply the flux density applied over an area. Flux carries the unit of a weber, which is simply a tesla-square meter.

The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized. It is a measure of the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the object. Magnetization carries the same units as a magnetic field; amperes/meter.

Conversion between CGS and SI magnetic units.

2.8 The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density B and the magnetizing force H. It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux B of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force H is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced back down to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost there alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material, is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.

As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back the saturation point where it with complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined.

Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point B on the hysteresis curve.)

Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.

Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point C on the hysteresis curve.)

Permeability, m - A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in the component.

Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

2.9 Permeability

As previously mentioned, permeability is a material property that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is established in the component. It is the ratio of the flux density to the magnetizing force and, therefore, represented by the following equation:

m = B/H

It is clear that this equation describes the slope of the curve at any point on the hysteresis loop. The permeability value given in papers and reference materials is usually the maximum permeability or the maximum relative permeability. The maximum permeability is the point where the slope of the B/H curve for unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is often taken as the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent to the B/H curve.

The relative permeability is arrived at by taking the ratio of the material's permeability to the permeability in free space (air).

m(relative) = m(material) / m(air)

where: m(air) = 4p x 10^-7 Hm^-1

The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.

Relative to the other material, the materials with the wide hysteresis loop has:

Lower Permeability

Higher Retentivity

Higher Coercivity

Higher Reluctance

Higher Residual Magnetism

The material with the narrower loop has:

Higher Permeability

Lower Retentivity

Lower Coercivity

Lower Reluctance

Lower Residual Magnetism.

In magnetic particle testing the level of residual magnetism is important. Residual magnetic fields are affected by the permeability, which can be related to the carbon content and alloying of the material. A component with high carbon content will have low permeability and will retain more magnetic flux than a material with low carbon content.

In the two B-H loops above, which one would indicative of a low carbon steel? Answer

2.10 Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability

To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are two general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component.

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be accomplished using the longitudinal field set up by a coil or solenoid. It can also be accomplished using permanent or electromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A circular magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current through the component or by passing current through a conductor surrounded by the component.

The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize the specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the surface of the part. As can be seen in the image below, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produced.

An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form an indication. Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the component below is considered, it is known that passing current through the part from end to end will establish a circular magnetic field that will be 90 degrees to the direction of the current. Therefore, defects that have a significant dimension in the direction of the current (longitudinal defects) should be detectable. Alternately, transverse-type defects will not be detectable with circular magnetization.

2.11 Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials

There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a component for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify the magnetizing methods as either direct or indirect.

Magnetization Using Direct Induction (Direct Magnetization)

With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. Recall that whenever current flows a magnetic field is produced. Using the right-hand rule, which was introduced earlier, it is known that the magnetic lines of flux form normal to the direction of the current and form a circular field in and around the conductor. When using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good electrical contact is established and maintained between the test equipment and the test component. Improper contact can result in arcing that may damage the component. It is also possible to overheat components in areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas of small cross-sectional area.

There are several ways that direct magnetization is commonly accomplished. One way involves clamping the component between two electrical contacts in a special piece of equipment. Current is passed through the component and a circular magnetic field is established in and around the component. When the magnetizing current is stopped, a residual magnetic field will remain within the component. The strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current passed through the component.

A second technique involves using clamps or prods, which are attached or placed in contact with the component. Electrical current flows through the component from contact to contact. The current sets up a circular magnetic field around the path of the current.

Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)

Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to establish a magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there are several ways that indirect magnetization can be accomplished.

The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a magnetic field. However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty of placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the component.

Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable horseshoe magnet (called a yoke) eliminate the problems associated with permanent magnets and are used extensively in industry. Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux when electric current is flowing around the soft iron core. When the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic field is established between the north and south poles of the magnet.

Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using the magnetic field of a current carrying conductor. A circular magnetic field can be established in cylindrical components by using a central conductor. Typically, one or more cylindrical components are hung from a solid copper bar running through the inside diameter. Current is passed through the copper bar and the resulting circular magnetic field establishes a magnetic field within the test components.

The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. When the length of a component is several times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can be established in the component. The component is placed longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization technique is often referred to as a "coil shot."

2.12 Magnetizing Current

As seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field in components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current and direct current are the two basic types of current commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts, to three phase 440 volts are used when generating an electric field in a component. Current flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The type of current used can have an effect on the inspection results so the types of currents commonly used will be briefly reviewed.

Direct Current
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, current is said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal when in actuality the electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is very desirable when performing magnetic particle inspection in search of subsurface defects because DC generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.

Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second. In the United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50 cycle current is common in many countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as "skin effect" and it occurs because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface defects.

View a short video on the AC versus DC (195 KB mov)

Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for the detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC, drive its use beyond surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that is very much like DC through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted to a one-directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are described below.

Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)
When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate as the unrectified current (50 or 60 hertz typical). Since half of the current is blocked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC.

This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The pulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and giving them added mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes.

Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved.

Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more favorable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with three phase AC will usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave rectified), providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.

2.13 Longitudinal Magnetic Fields Distribution and Intensity

When the length of a component is several time larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can be established in the component. The component is often placed longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization technique is often referred to as a "coil shot."

The magnetic field travels through the component from end to end with some flux loss along its length as shown in the image to the right. Keep in mind that the magnetic lines of flux occur in three dimensions and are only shown in 2D in the image. The magnetic lines of flux are much denser inside the ferromagnetic material than in air because ferromagnetic materials have much higher permeability than does air. When the concentrated flux within the material comes to the air at the end of the component, it must spread out since the air can not support as many lines of flux per unit volume. To keep from crossing as they spread out, some of the magnetic lines of flux are forced out the side of the component.

When a component is magnetized along its complete length, the flux loss is small along its length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in cross section and magnetic permeability, the flux density will be relatively uniform throughout the component. Flaws that run normal to the magnetic lines of flux will disturb the flux lines and often cause a leakage field at the surface of the component.

When a component with considerable length is magnetized using a solenoid, it is possible to magnetize only a portion of the component. Only the material within the solenoid and about the same width on each side of the solenoid will be strongly magnetized. At some distance from the solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will abandon their longitudinal direction, leave the part at a pole on one side of the solenoid and return to the part at a opposite pole on the other side of the solenoid. This occurs because the magnetizing force diminishes with increasing distance from the solenoid, and, therefore, the magnetizing force may only be strong enough to align the magnetic domains within and very near the solenoid. The unmagnetized portion of the component will not support as much magnetic flux as the magnetized portion and some of the flux will be forced out of the part as illustrated in the image below. Therefore, a long component must be magnetized and inspected at several locations along its length for complete inspection coverage.

Solenoid - An electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a magnetic field within the coil. solenoid

2.14 Circular Magnetic Fields Distribution and Intensity

As discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic field forms in and around the conductor. The following statements can be made about the distribution and intensity of the magnetic field.

The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a maximum at the surface.

The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor increases when the current strength is held constant. (However, a larger conductor is capable of carrying more current.)

The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current strength. Inside the conductor the field strength is dependent on the current strength, magnetic permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the B-H curve.

The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor.

In the images below, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the center of the conductor. It can be seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC, the internal field strength rises from zero at the center to a maximum value at the surface of the conductor. The external field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. When the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater that it was in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the permeability of the magnetic material. The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.

The magnetic field distribution in and around a solid conductor of a nonmagnetic material carrying direct current.	The magnetic field distribution in and around a solid conductor of a magnetic material carrying direct current.

The magnetic field distribution in and around a solid conductor of a magnetic material carrying alternating current.

When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field strength rises from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface. However, the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is known as the "skin effect." The skin effect is evident in the field strength versus distance graph for a magnet conductor shown to the right. The external field decreases with increasing distance from the surface as it does with DC. It should be remembered that with AC the field is constantly varying in strength and direction.

In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic field is zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a maximum at the outside wall surface. As with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater that it was in the nonmagnetic conductor due to the permeability of the magnetic material. The external field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. The external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.

The magnetic field distribution in and around a hollow conductor of a nonmagnetic material carrying direct current.	The magnetic field distribution in and around a hollow conductor of a magnetic material carrying direct current.

The magnetic field distribution in and around a hollow conductor of a magnetic material carrying alternating current.

When AC is passed through a hollow circular conductor the skin effect concentrates the magnetic field at the outside diameter of the component.

The magnetic field distribution in and around a nonmagnetic central conductor carrying DC inside a hollow conductor of a magnetic material .

As can be seen in the field distribution images, the field strength at the inside surface of hollow conductor carrying a circular magnetic field produced by direct magnetization is very low. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is not recommended when inspecting the inside diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field strength increases rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID so if the defect has significant depth, it may be detectable. However, a much better method of magnetizing hollow components for inspection of the ID and OD surfaces is with the use of a central conductor. As can be seen in the field distribution image to the right, when current is passed through a nonmagnetic central conductor (copper bar) the magnetic field produced on the inside diameter surface of a magnetic tube is much greater and the field is still strong enough for defect detection on the OD surface.

2.15 Demagnetization

After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize the component. Remanent magnetic fields can:

affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.

create a condition known as "ark blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.

cause abrasive particle to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.

Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the magnetic domains can be achieved most effectively by heating the material above its curie temperature. The curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770 degrees C or 1390 degrees F. When steel is heated above its curie temperature, it will become austenitic and loose its magnetic properties. When it is cooled back down it will go through a reverse transformation and will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should also be placed with it long axis in an east-west orientation to avoid any influence of the Earth's magnetic field.

It is often inconvenient to heat a material above it curie temperature to demagnetize it so another method that returns the material to a nearly unmagnetized state is commonly used. Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the dipoles to a nearly randomly oriented throughout the material. This can be accomplished by pulling a component out and away from a coil with AC passing through it. The same can also be accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke with AC selected. Also, many stationary magnetic particle inspection units come with a demagnetization feature that slowly reduces the AC in a coil in which the component is placed.

A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux has been removed from a component. Industry standards usually require that the magnetic flux be reduced to less than 3 gauss after completing a magnetic particle inspection.

2.16 Measuring Magnetic Fields

When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be able to determine the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. As discussed previously, the direction of the magnetic field should be between 45 and 90 degrees to the longest dimension of the flaw for best detectability. The field intensity must be high enough to cause an indication to form, but not too high or nonrelevant indications may form that could mask relevant indications. To cause an indication to form, the field strength in the object must produce a flux leakage field that is strong enough to hold the magnetic particles in place over a discontinuity. Flux measurement devices can provide important information about the field strength.

Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. There are a number of different devices that can be used to detect and measure an external magnetic field. The two devices commonly used in magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator and the Hall effect meter, which is also often called a gaussmeter. Pie gages and shims are devices that are often used to provide an indication of the field direction and strength but do not actually yield a quantitative measure. They will be discussed in a later section.

Field Indicators
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron vane that will be deflected by a magnetic field. The X-ray image below shows the inside working of a field meter looking in from the side. The vane is attached to a needle that rotates and moves the pointer for the scale. Field indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that quantitative information can be obtained. However, the measurement range of field indicators is usually small due to the mechanics of the device. The one shown to the right has a range from plus twenty gauss to minus twenty gauss. This limited range makes them best suited for measuring the residual magnetic field after demagnetization.

Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter
A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that provides a digital readout of the magnetic field strength in gauss or tesla units. The meters use a very small conductive or semiconductor element at the tip of the probe. Electric current is passed through the conductor. In a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a force on the moving electrons which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall-effect after Edwin H. Hall who discovered it in 1879.

The voltage generated Vh can be related to the external magnetic field by the following equation.

Vh = I B Rh / b

Where:
Vh is the voltage generated.
I is the applied direct current.
B is the component of the magnetic field that is at a right angle to the direct current in the Hall element.
Rh is the Hall Coefficient of the Hall element.
b is the thickness of the Hall element.

Probes are available with either tangential (transverse) or axial sensing elements. Probes can be purchased in a wide variety of sizes and configurations and with different measurement ranges. The probe is placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic lines of force intersect the major dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle. Placement and orientation of the probe is very important and will be discussed in a later section.

3. Equipment &Materials

3.1 Portable Magnetizing Equipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection

To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate them. As discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for detection of a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degrees angle. Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.

Magnetic Fields:
A field of force that exists around a magnetic body or a current carrying conductor.

Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to establish a magnetic field in at least two directions. A variety of equipment exist to establish the magnetic field for MPI. One way to classify equipment is based on its portability. Some equipment is designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing facility. Portable equipment will be discussed first.

Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and horseshoe (yoke) magnets. These industrial magnets are usually very strong and may require significant strength to remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent magnets require over 50 pounds of force to remove them from the surface. Because it is difficult to remove the magnets from the component being inspected, and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not particularly popular. However, permanent magnets are sometimes used by a diver for inspection in an underwater environment or other areas, such as in an explosive environment, where electromagnets cannot be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.

Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is based on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the magnetic field. An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is used to establish a magnetic field. It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, also the magnetic field can be turn on and off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall socket or by direct current from a battery pack. This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of magnet touch the part to be inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40 pounds.

Portable yoke with battery pack	Portable magnetic particle kit

View a short movie on portable magnetic yokes (716 KB mov)

Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current through the metal. The current passing between the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that is can be used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copper and have an insulated handle to help protect the operator. One of the prods has a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily turned on and off. Sometimes the the two prods are connected by any insulator as shown in the image to facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used for weld inspections.

If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface, electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the use of prods are not allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To help to prevent arcing, the prod tips should be inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or other contaminant, or damaged.

The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a conducting part. The resultant magnetic field roughly depicted gives an estimation of the patterns expected with magnetic particle on an unflawed surface. The user is encouraged to manipulate the prods to orient the magnetic field to "cut across" suspected defects.

Portable Coils and Conductive Cables
Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within a component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside surface on the coil. Coils typically have three or five turns of a copper cable within the molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the coil. Conductive cables are wrapped around the component. The cable used is typically 00 extra flexible or 0000 extra flexible. The number of wraps is determined by the magnetizing force needed and, of course, the length of the cable. Normally the wraps are kept as close together as possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually expressed in ampere-turns. Ampere-turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the number of turns in the coil.

Portable coil	Conductive Cable

Portable Power Supplies
Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods, coils or cables. Power supplies are commercially available in a variety of sizes. Small power supplies generally provide up to 1,500 A of half wave direct current or alternating current when used with a 4.5 meter 0000 cable. They are small and light enough to be carried and operate on either 120 V or 240 V electrical service. When more power is necessary, mobile power supplies can be used. These units come with wheel so that they can be rolled where needed. These units also operate on 120 V or 240 V electrical service and can provide up to 6,000 A of AC or half-wave DC when 9 meters or less of 0000 cable is used.

3.2 Stationary Equipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection

Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment is designed for use in laboratory or production environment. The most common stationary system is the wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet horizontal units are designed to allow for batch inspections of a variety of components. The units have head and tail stocks, similar to a lathe but with electrical contact that the part can be clamped between for the production of a circular magnetic field using direct magnetization. The tail stock can be moved and locked into place to accommodate parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the parts, the contact on the headstock can be moved pneumatically via a foot switch.

Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the indirect magnetization can be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can be obtained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank. A pump and hose system is used to apply the particle solution to the components being inspected. Either the visible or fluorescent particles can be used. Some of the systems offer a variety of options in electrical current used for magnetizing the component. The operator has the option to use AC, half wave DC, or full wave DC. In some units, a demagnetization feature is built in, which uses the coil and decaying AC.

To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is clamped between two electrical contact pads. The magnetic solution, called a bath, is then flowed over the surface of the part. The bath is then interrupted and a magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds. (Precautions should be taken to prevent burning or overheating of the part.) A circular field flowing around the circumference of the part is created. Leakage fields from defects then attract the particles forming indications.

When the coil is used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within the part, the part is placed on the inside surface of the coil. Just as done with a head shot, the bath is then flowed over the surface of the part. A magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds, just after coverage with the bath is interrupted. (Precautions should be taken to prevent burning or overheating of the part.) Leakage fields from defects attract the particles forming visible indications.

The wet horizontal unit can also be used to establish a circular magnetic field using a central conductor. This type of a setup is used to inspect parts that are hollow such as gears, tubes, and other ring-shaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically conductive bar that is usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the center of the hollow part and the bar is then clamped between the contact pads. When current is passed through the central conductor, a circular magnetic field flows around the bar and enters into the part or parts being inspected.

Multidirectional Equipment for
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Multidirectional units allow the component to be magnetized in two directions, longitudinally and circumferentially, in rapid succession. Therefore, inspections are conducted without the need for a second shot. In multidirectional units, the two fields are balanced so that the field strengths are equal in both directions. These quickly changing balanced fields produce a multidirectional field in the component providing detection of defects lying in more than one direction.

Just as in conventional wet-horizontal systems, the electrical current used in multidirectional magnetization may be alternating, half-wave direct, or full-wave. It is also possible to use a combination of currents depending on the test applications. Multidirectional magnetization can be used for a large number of production applications, and high volume inspections.

To determine adequate field strength and balance of the rapidly changing fields, technique development requires a little more effort when multidirectional equipment is used. It is desirable to develop the technique using a component with known defects oriented in at least two directions, or a manufactured defect standard. Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) are also often used to verify the strength and direction of magnetic fields.

3.3 Lights for Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly visible under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visible under ultraviolet lighting conditions. When an inspection is being performed using the visible color contrast particles, no special lighting is required as long as the area of inspection is well lit. A light intensity of at least 1000 lux (100 fc) is recommended when a visible particles are used, but a variety of light sources can be used.

When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used. Fluorescence is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visible spectrum when exposed to the near-ultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are most common because this color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions. However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are available.

Ultraviolet Light

Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to 400 nm) wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000 Angstroms fall into the visible light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light and the more dangerous it is to the human cells.

Class UV-A UV-B UV-C	Wavelength Range 3,200–4,000 Angstroms 2,800–3,200 Angstroms 2,800–1,000 Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and 3,800 Angstroms with a peak wavelength at about 3,650 A. This wavelength range is used because it is in the UV-A range, which is the safest to work with. UV-B will do an effective job of causing substances to fluoresce, however, it should not be used because harmful effects such as skin burns, and eye damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. UV-C (1,000 to 2,800) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill bacteria in industrial and medical settings.

The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet light generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of wavelengths. The short wave lengths of 3,120 A to 3,340 A are produced in low levels. A peak wavelength of 3650 A is produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the visible violet range (4050 A to 4350 A), green-yellow (5460 A), yellow (6220 A) and orange (6770 A) are also usually produced. The filter allows only radiation in the range of 3200 to 4000 angstroms and a little visible dark purple to pass.

Basic Ultraviolet Lights
UV bulbs come in a variety on shapes and sizes. The more common types are the low pressure tube, high pressure spot, the high pressure flood types. The tubular black light is similar in construction to the tubular fluorescent lights used for office or home illumination. These lights use a low pressure mercury vapor arc. Tube lengths of 6 to 48 inches are common. The low pressure bulbs are most often used to provide general illumination to large areas rather than for illumination of components to be inspected. These bulbs generate a relatively large amount of white light that is a concern as inspection specifications require less than two foot candles of white light at the inspection surface.

Flood lights are also used to illuminate the inspection area as they provide even illumination over a large area. Intensity levels for flood lamps is relatively low because the energy is spread over a large area. They generally do not generate the required UV light intensity at the given distance that specifications require.

Spot lights on the other hand provide concentrated energy that can be directed to the area of inspection. A spot light will generate a six inch diameter circle of high intensity light when held fifteen inches from the inspection surface. 100 watt mercury vapor lights are most commonly used, but higher wattage's are available.

In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, UV light is generated by a quartz tube inside the bulb. This tube contains two electrodes that establish an arc. The distance between electrodes is such that a starting electrode must be used. A resister limits the current to the starting electrode that establishes the initial arc that vaporizes the mercury in the tube. Once this low level arc is established and the mercury is vaporized the arc between the main electrodes is established. It takes approximately five minutes to "warm up" and establish the arc between the main electrodes. This is why specifications require a "warm up time" before using the high pressure mercury vapor lights. Flood and spot black lights produce large amounts of heat and should be handled with caution to prevent burns. This condition has been eliminated by newer designs that include cooling fans. The arc in the bulb can be upset when exposed to an external magnetic field, such as that generated by a coil. Care should be taken not to bring the lamp close to strong magnetic fields, but if the arc is upset and extinguished, it must be allowed to cool before it can be safely restarted.

High Intensity Ultraviolet Lights
The 400 watt metal halide bulbs or "super lights" can be found in some facilities. This super bright light will provide adequate lighting over an area of up to ten times of that covered by the 100 watt bulb. Due to their high intensity, excessive light reflecting from the surface of a component is a concern. Moving the light a greater distance from the inspection area will generally reduce this glare. Another type of high intensity light available is the micro discharge light. This particular light produces up to ten times the amount of UV light conventional lights produce. Readings of up to 60,000 uW/cm2 at 15 inches can be achieved.

3.4 Field Strength Indicators

Magnetic Field Indicators

Determining whether a magnetic field is of adequate strength and in the proper direction is critical when performing magnetic particle testing. As discussed previously, knowing the direction of the field is important because the field should be as close to perpendicular to the defect as possible and no more than 45 degrees from normal. Being able to evaluate the field direction and strength is especially important when inspecting with a multidirectional machine, because when the fields are not balanced properly a vector field will be produced that may not detect some defects.

There is actually no easy to apply method that permits an exact measurement of field intensity at a given point within a material. In order to measure the field strength it is necessary to intercept the flux lines. This is impossible without cutting into the material and cutting the material would immediately change the field within the part. However, cutting a small slot or hole into the material and measuring the leakage field that crosses the air gap with a Gauss meter is probably the best way to get an estimate of the actual field strength within a part. Nevertheless, there are a number of tools and methods available that are used to determine the presence and direction of a field surrounding the component.

Gauss Meter or Hall Effect Gage

A Gauss meter with a Hall Effect probe, is commonly used to measure the tangential field strength on the surface of the part. As discussed in some detail on the "Measuring Magnetic Fields" page, the Hall effect is the transverse electric field created in a conductor when placed in a magnetic field. Gauss meters, also called Tesla meters, are used to measure the strength of a field tangential to the surface of the magnetized test object. The meters measure the intensity of the field in the air adjacent to the component when a magnetic field is applied.

The advantages of Hall effect devices are; they provide a quantitative measure of the strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, they can be used for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and they can be used repetitively. Their main disadvantages are that they must be periodically calibrated, and they cannot be used to establish the balance of fields in multidirectional applications.

Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)

The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard are often the preferred method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field strength. The use of QQIs is also the only practical way of ensuring balanced field intensity and direction in multiple-direction magnetization equipment. QQIs are often used in conjunction with a Gauss meter to establish the inspection procedure for a particular component. They are used with the wet method only and, as other flux sharing devices, they can only be used when continuous magnetization is used.

The QQI is a thin strip of either 0.002 or 0.004 inch thick AISI 1005 steel. A photoetch process is used to inscribe a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus sign. QQIs are nominally 3/4 inch square, but miniature shims are also available. QQIs must be in intimate contact with the part being evaluated. This is accomplished by placing the shim on a part etched side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface. The component is then magnetized and particles applied. When the field strength is adequate, the particles will adhere over the engraved pattern and provide information about the field direction. When a multidirectional technique is used, a balance of the fields is noted when all areas of the QQI produce indications.

Some of the advantages of QQIs are: they can be quantified and related to other parameters; they can accommodate virtually any configuration with suitable selection; and they can be reused with careful application and removal practices. Some of the disadvantages are: the application process is somewhat slow, the parts must be clean and dry; shims cannot be used as a residual magnetism indicator as they are a flux sharing device; they can be easily damaged with improper handling and will corrode if not cleaned and properly stored.

Above left is a photo of a typical QQI shim. The photo on the right, shows the indication produced by the QQI when it is applied to the surface a part and a magnetic field is established that runs across the shim from right to left.

Pie Gage

The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or eight sections by nonferromagnetic material. The division serve as artificial defects that radiate out in different directions from the center. Diameter of the gage is ¾ to 1 inch. The divisions between the low carbon steel pie sections are to be no greater than 1/32 inch. The sections are furnace brazed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up, and the test piece is magnetized. After particles are applied, and excess removed, the indications provide the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field.

The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision parts with complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for proving field magnitude. The gage should be demagnetized between readings.

Several of the main advantages of the pie gage are: it is easy to use and it can be used indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has several disadvantages, which include: it retains some residual magnetism so indications will prevail after removal of the source of magnetization, it can only be used in relatively flat areas, and it cannot be reliably used for determination of balanced fields in multidirectional magnetization.

Slotted Strips

Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-Castrol Strips, are pieces of highly permeable ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on the test object as it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a general idea of the field strength in a particular area.

Advantages of these strips are: they are relatively easily applied to the component; they can be used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the continuous magnetization; they are repeatable as long as orientation to the magnetic field is maintained and they can be used repetitively. Disadvantages include: they cannot be bent to complex configuration; and they are not suitable for multidirectional field applications since they indicate defects in only one direction.

3.5 Magnetic Particles

As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles start out as tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhat like paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color. The metal used for the particles has high magnetic permeability and low retentivity. High magnetic permeability is important because it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is important because the particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so they do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in a dry mix or a wet solution.

Dry Magnetic Particles
Dry magnetic particles can typically be purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and several other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important. Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The fine particles are around 50 mm (0.002 inch) in size are about three times smaller in diameter and more than 20 times lighter than the coarse particles (150 mm or 0.006 inch), which make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large discontinuities and to reduce the powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface contamination, such as remanent dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness features producing a high level of background. It should also be recognized that finer particles will be more easily blown away by the wind and, therefore, windy conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not recommended because the small particle are less likely to be recaptured and the "once used" mix will result in less sensitive inspections.

The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves along the lines of magnetic force. However, research has shown that if dry powder consists only of long, slender particles, the application process would be less than desirable. Elongated particles come from the dispenser in clumps and lack the ability to flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles floating on the component. Therefore, globular particles are added that are shorter. The mix of globular and elongated particles result in a dry powder that flows well and maintain good sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particle with L/D ratios between one and two.

Wet Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively large area.

Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a number of ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particle are available. Most nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or brown in color. Fluorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green-yellow are most common to take advantage of the peak color sensitivity of the eye but other fluorescent colors are also available. (For more information on the color sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant inspection material.)

The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry method for the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 10 mm (0.0004 inch) and smaller and the synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.1 mm (0.000004 inch). This very small size is a result of the process used to form the particles and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out of suspension. However, due to their slight residual magnetism, the oxide particles are present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the individual particles. This makes it possible to see and measure the concentration of the particles for process control purposes. Wet particles are also a mix of long slender and globular particles.

The carrier solutions can be water- or oil-based. Water-based carriers form quicker indications, are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. Water-based solutions are usually formulated with a corrosion inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection. However, oil-based carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack by these mechanisms.

3.6 Suspension Liquids

Suspension liquids used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method can be either a well refined light petroleum distillate or water containing additives. Petroleum-based liquids are the most desirable carriers because they provided good wetting of the surface of metallic parts. However, water-based carriers are used more because of low cost, low fire hazard, and the ability to form indications quicker than solvent-based carriers. Water-based carriers must contain wetting agents to disrupt surface films of oil that may exist on the part and to aid in the dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier. The wetting agents create foaming as the solution is moved about, so anti-foaming agents must be added. Also, since water promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion inhibitors are usually added as well.

Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper particle concentration is a concern. The petroleum based carriers require less maintenance because they evaporate at a slower rate than the water-based carriers. Therefore, petroleum based carriers might be a better choice for a system that only gets occasional use and adjusting the carrier volume with each use is undesirable. Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed with properties that have flash points above 200 degrees F and keep nocuous vapors low. Petroleum carriers are required to meet certain specifications such as AMS 2641.

4. Testing Practices

4.1 Dry Particle Inspection

In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the test object as the item is magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on rough surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half wave DC current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mobility to the powder. The primary applications for dry powders are unground welds and rough as-cast surfaces.

Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface cracks. Dry particles with half wave DC is the best approach when inspecting for lack-of-root penetration in welds of thin materials. Half wave DC with prods and dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large castings for hot tears and cracks.

Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles

Prepare the part surface - the surface should be relatively clean but this is not as critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, a electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coil or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied, remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gently puffs of dry air. The force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particle but not strong enough to dislodge particle held by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be terminated. It permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.

4.2 Wet Suspension Inspection

Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, or more commonly wet magnetic particle inspection, involves applying the particles while they are suspended in a liquid carrier. Wet magnetic particle inspection is most commonly performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit but suspensions are also available in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic yoke. A wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. First, all the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier provides mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which allows enough particle to float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication. Therefore, wet inspection is considered best for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces. On rough surfaces, however, the particle (which are much smaller in wet suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys and loose mobility rendering them less effective than dry powders under these conditions.

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions

Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the surface should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil and other moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface of the part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part just before the magnetizing field is applied.
Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied immediately after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short busts (1/2 second) which helps to improve particle mobility.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered. Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications from subsurface flaws will be less defined and loose definition as depth increases.

4.3 Inspection Using Magnetic Rubber

The magnetic rubber technique was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is capable of revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniques. Additionally, the technique can be use to examine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside diameter of holes, where the molded plugs can be removed and examined under ideal conditions and magnification if desired. The tradeoff, of course, is that inspection times are much longer.

The techniques uses a liquid (uncured) rubber containing suspended magnetic particles. The rubber compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetized component. Inspections can be performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained while the rubber sets (active field), or the residual field from magnetization of the component prior to pouring the compound. A dam of modeling clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of interest. The magnetic particles migrate to the leakage field caused by a discontinuity. As the rubber cures, discontinuity indications remain in place on the rubber.

The rubber is allowed to completely set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes. The rubber cast is removed from the part. The rubber conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse replica of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of discontinuities, which appear as dark lines on the surface of the molding. The molding can be retained as a permanent record of the inspection.

Magnetic rubber methods requires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method magnetic particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central conductors. Alternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may be used to draw the particles to the leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization source for magnetic rubber inspection.

4.4 Continuous and Residual Magnetization Techniques

In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic particles can either be applied to the component while the magnetizing force is applied, or after it has been stopped. Continuous magnetization describes the technique where the magnetizing force is applied and maintained while the magnetic particles are dusted or flowed onto the surface of the component. In a wet horizontal testing unit the application of the particles is stopped just before the magnetizing force is applied but since particles are still flowing over and covering the surface, this is considered continuous magnetization. Residual magnetization, on the other hand,describes the technique where the magnetizing force is applied to magnetize the component and then stopped before applying the magnetic particles. Only the residual field of the magnetized component is used to attract magnetic particles and produce an indication.

The continuous technique is generally chosen when maximum sensitivity is required because it has two distinct advantages over the residual technique. First, the magnetic flux will be highest when current is flowing and, therefore, leakage fields will also be strongest. Field strength in a component depends primarily on two variables...the applied magnetic field strength and the permeability of the test object. Viewing the upper right portion of the hysteresis loop below, it is evident that the magnetic flux will be strongest when the magnetizing force is applied. If the magnetizing force is strong enough, the flux density will reach the point of saturation. When the magnetizing force is removed, the flux density will drop to the retentivity point. The two gray traces show the path the flux density would follow if the magnetizing force was applied and removed at levels below that required to reach saturation. It can be seen that the flux density is always highest while the magnetizing current is applied. This is independent of the permeability of a material.

However, the permeability of the material is very important. High permeability materials do not retain a strong magnetic field so flux leakage fields will be extremely weak or nonexistent when the magnetizing force is removed. Therefore, materials with high magnetic permeability are not suited for inspection using the residual technique. When the residual technique is used to inspect materials with low permeability, care should be taken to ensure that the residual field is of the necessary strength to produce an indication. Defects should be relatively large and surface breaking to have a high probability of detection using the residual method.

The second advantage of the continuous technique is that when current is used to generate the magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mobility. Alternating or pulsed direct current will cause the particles to vibrate and move slightly on the surface of the part. This movement allows the particles to travel to leakage sites. More particles mean brighter indications compared to those formed using the residual technique.

One disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs when using direct magnetization. For example, when prods are used, they may create areas of localized heating when the continuous technique is used. This may be acceptable on components that will be further processed removing this condition but machined or in-service components may be adversely affected by this condition.

While generally not recommended, the residual technique does have its uses. It is commonly used in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high retentivity. To speed throughput, automated systems often magnetize the parts and then submerge them in a agitated magnetic particle bath or pass them through a spray station. Closely controlled automated systems provided good results using the residual magnetism technique.

4.5 Field Direction and Intensity

Field Direction
As discussed previously, determining the direction of the field is important when conducting a magnetic particle inspection because the defect must produce a significant disturbance in the magnetic field to produce an indication. It is difficult to detect discontinuities that intersects the magnetic field at an angle less than 45 degrees. When the orientation of a defect is not well established, components should be magnetized in a minimum of two directions at approximately right angles to each other. Depending on the geometry of the component, this may require longitudinal magnetization in two or more directions, multiple longitudinal and circular magnetization or circular magnetization in multiple directions. Determining strength and direction of the fields is especially critical when inspecting with a multidirectional machine. If the fields are not balanced a vector field will be produced that may not detect some defects.

Depending on the application, pie gages, QQIs, and a guass meter can be used to check the field direction. The PIE gage is generally only used with dry powder inspections. QQI shims can be used in a variety of applications but are the only method recommended for use in establishing balanced fields when using multiderectional equipment.

Field Strength
The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory indication, but not so strong that it produces nonrelevant indications or limits particle mobility. If the magnetizing current is excessively high when performing a wet fluorescent particle inspection, particles can be attracted to the surface of the part and not allowed to migrate to the flux leakage fields of defects. When performing a dry particle inspection, an excessive longitudinal magnetic field will cause furring. Furring is when magnetic particles build up at the magnetic poles of a part. When the field strength is excessive, the magnetic field is forced out of the part before reaching the end of the component and the poles along its length attract particle and cause high background levels. Adequate field strength may be determined by:

performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test component and has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and location as those expected in the test component. QQI shims can sometimes be used as the artificial defects.

using a guass meter with a Hall effect probe to measure to the peak values of the tangent field at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most specifications call for a field strength of 30 to 60 gauss at the surface when the magnetizing force is applied.

looking for light furring at the ends pipe and bar when performing dry particle inspections of pipe, bar and other uncomplicated shapes.

Formula for calculating current levels should only be used to estimate current requirements. The magnetic field strength resulting from calculations should be assessed for adequacy using one of the two method discussed above. Likewise, published current level information should also be used only as a guide unless the values have been established for the specific component and target defects of the inspection at hand.

Using a PIE Gage

A PIE gage is placed copper side up and held in contact with the component as the magnetic field and particles are applied. Indications of the leakage fields provide a visual representation of defect direction within the component. PIE gages work well on flat surfaces, but if the surface is concave or convex inaccurate readings may occur. The PIE gage is a flux sharing device and requires good contact to provide accurate readings.

Using Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) Shims

Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) flaw shims are used to establish proper field direction and to ensure adequate field strength during technique development. The QQI flaw shim is the most efficient means of determining balance and effectiveness of fields. The QQI are also flux sharing devices and must be properly attach so as not allow particle to be trapped under the artificial flaw. Application using super glue is the preferred way of attaching the artificial flaw, but does not allow for reuse of the shims. Shims can also be attached with tape applied to just the edge of the shim.. It is recommended that the tape be impervious to oil, not be fluorescent, and be 1/4 to 1/2 inch in width.

The QQI must be applied to locations on the component where the flux density may very. One example would be the center area of a yoke or Y shaped component. Often times the flux density will be near 0 in this area. If two legs of a Y are in contact with the pad in circular magnetization it must be determined if current is flowing evenly through each leg. A QQI on each leg would be appropriate under such conditions.

QQI's can be used to establish system threshold values for a defect of a given size. By attaching a QQI shim with three circles (40%, 30% and 20% of shim thickness) to the threshold values for a specific area of the component can be established. Begin by applying current at a low amperage and slowly increasing it until the largest flaw is obtained. The flux density sound be verified and recorded using a Hall effects probe. The current is then increased until the second circle is identified and the flux density is again recorded. As the current is raised more, the third ring is identified and the current values are recorded.

Hall Effects Gauss Meter

There are several types of Hall effects probes that can be used to measure the magnetic field strength. Transverse probes are the type most commonly used to evaluate the field strength in magnetic particle testing. Transverse probes have the Hall effect element mounted in a thin, flat stem and they are used to make measurements between two magnetic poles. Axial probes have the sensing element mounted such that the magnetic flux in the direction of the long axis of the probe is measured.

To make a measurement with a transverse probe, the probe is positioned such that the flat surface of the Hall effect element is transverse to the magnetic lines of flux. The Hall effect voltage is a function of the angle at which the magnetic lines of flux pass through the sensing element. The greatest Hall effect voltage occurs when the lines of flux pass perpendicularly through the sensing element. If not perpendicular, the output voltage is related to the cosine of the difference between 90 degrees and the actual angle. The peak field strength should be measured when the magnetizing force is applied. The field strength should be measured in all areas of the component to be inspected.

5. Process Control

5.1 Particle Concentration and Condition

Particle Concentration
The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very important parameter in the inspection process and must be closely controlled. The particle concentration is checked after the suspension is prepared and continued regularly as part of the quality system checks. ASTM E-1444-01 requires concentration checks to be performed every eight hours or ever shift change.

The standard process used to perform the check requires agitating the carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle distribution. A sample is then taken in a pear-shaped 100 ml centrifuge tube having a stem graduated to 1.0 ml in 0.05 ml increments for fluorescent particles, and graduated to 1.5 ml. in 0.1 ml increments for visible particles. The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do not clump together while settling. The sample must then remain undisturbed for a minimum of 60 minutes for a petroleum-based carrier or 30 minutes for a water-based carrier, unless shorter times have been documented to produce results similar to the longer settling times. The volume of settled particles is then read. Acceptable ranges are 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent particles and 1.2 to 2.4 ml for visible particles. If the particle concentration is out of the acceptable range, particles or the carrier must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with the requirement.

Particle loss is often attributed to "dragout". Dragout occurs because the solvent easily runs off components and is recaptured in the holding tank. Particles, on the other hand, tend to adhere to components, or be trapped in geometric features of the component. These particles will be "drug out" or lost to the system, and will eventually need to be replaced.

Particle Condition
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for brightness and agglomeration. Fluorescent particles should be evaluated under ultraviolet light and visible particles under white light. The brightness of the particles should be evaluated weekly by comparing the particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference solution that was saved when the solution was first prepared. The brightness of the two solutions should be relatively the same. Additionally, the particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the brightness or the agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different from the reference solution, the bath should be replaced.

5.2 Suspension Contamination

The suspension solution should also be examined for evidence of contamination. Contamination primarily comes come from inspected components. Oils, greases, sand, and dirt will be introduced to the system through components. If the area is unusually dusty the system will pickup dust or other contaminates from the environment.

This examination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for concentration testing. The graduated portion of the tube is viewed under ultraviolet and white light when fluorescent particles are being used, and under white light when visible particles are being used. The magnetic particles should be examined for foreign particles, such as dirt, paint chips and other solids. Differences in color, layering or banding within the settled particles would indicate contamination. Some contamination is to be expected but if the foreign matter exceeds 30 percent of the settled solids, the solution should be replaced.

The liquid carrier portion of the solution should also be inspected for contamination. Oil in a water bath and water in a solvent bath are the primary concerns. If the solution fluoresces brightly when fluorescent particles are being used, this can be an indication that dye is being dislodged from the particles by the mixing pump. While not technically contamination, this condition should be further evaluated by allowing the collected sample bath to set for 10 to 12 hours and viewing under ultraviolet light. If a band that fluoresces brighter than the bulk of particles is evident on top of the settled solids, the bath contains excessive unattached fluorescent pigments and should be discarded.

Water Break Test
A daily water break check is required to evaluate the surface wetting performance of water-based carriers. The water break check simply involves flooding a clean surface similar to those being inspected and observing the surface film. If a continuous film forms over the entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of suspension breaks (water break) exposing the surface of the component, insufficient wetting agent is present and the solution should be adjusted or replaced.

5.3 Electrical System

Changes in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection unit can obviously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the electrical system must be checked when the equipment is new, when a malfunction is suspected, or every six months. Listed below are the verification tests required by ASTM E-1444-01

Maximum Unit Output
A magnetic particle unit should be checked regularly (daily) to verify that the maximum current output of its electrical system has not changed over time. This check is performed by placing a large diameter (1 inch or more typical) copper or aluminum bar between the contacts and energizing the circuit with the current control set to the maximum value. The maximum amperage as recorded by the systems ammeter should be noted and compared to the value obtained when the unit was last certified or calibrated. A significant drop or gradual decay indicates a problem with the unit that should be corrected.

Internal Short Test
The internal short circuit testing is required to determine the if current is "leaking past" the test article. Internal electrical leakage will cause the test equipment to indicate current is flowing through the component when it is actually bypassing the component. The process for checking equipment for this condition is to energize the system with nothing between the contact heads and the amperage set to the highest output. If the ammeter shows any current flow, internal shorting should be suspected.

Ammeter Check
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter is reading low, over magnetization will occur and possibly result in excessive background. If ammeter readings are high, flux density could be too low to produce detectable indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a calibrated ammeter is connected in series with the output circuit and values are compared to the equipment's ammeter values. Readings are taken at three output levels in the working range. The equipment meter is not to deviate from the calibrated ammeter more than +/- 10 percent or 50 amperes, whichever is greater. If the meter is found outside of this range, the condition must be corrected. It should be noted that when measuring half-wave rectified current, the readings should be doubled.

Quick Break Test
A quick break circuit is primarily used in three-phase, full-wave rectified systems to ensure longitudinal magnetic fields maintain their strength to the end of a component. Quick break circuits cause the current to abruptly collapse or drop to zero at the end of the activation cycle. By doing this, low frequency eddy currents are produced close to the surface of a component. These eddy currents help extend the useable longitudinal field to the ends of the component. To determine if a quick break system is functioning properly an oscilloscope is often used. By observing the sine wave of the current, it can be determine if current drops abruptly when the circuit is interrupted.

Shot Timer Check
When a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must be calibrated. ASTM E-1444 -01 requires the timer be calibrated to within +/- 0.1 second. A certified timer should be used to verify the equipment timer is within the required tolerances.

5.4 Lighting

Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any indications that are formed. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the inspection process. Obviously, the lighting requirements are different for an inspection conducted using visible particles than they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent particles. The lighting requirements for each of these techniques, as well as how light measurements are made, is discussed below.

Light Requirements When Using Visible Particles

Magnetic particle inspections conducted using visible particles can be conducted using natural lighting or artificial lighting. When using natural lighting, it is important to keep in mind that daylight varies from hour to hour. Inspector must stay constantly aware of the lighting conditions and make adjustments when needed. To improve uniformity in lighting from one inspection to the next, the use of artificial lighting is recommended. Artificial lighting should be white whenever possible and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The light intensity is required to be 100 foot-candles at the surface being inspected. It is advisable to choose a white light wattage that will provide sufficient light, but avoid excessive reflected light that could distract from the inspection.

Light Requirements When Using Fluorescent Particles

Ultraviolet Lighting

When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the condition of the ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be monitored. Standards and procedures require verification of lens condition and light intensity. Black lights should never be used with a cracked filter as output of white light and harmful black light will be increased. The cleanliness of the filter should also be checked as a coating of solvent carrier, oils, or other foreign materials can reduce the intensity by up to as much as 50%. The filter should be checked visually and cleaned as necessary before warm-up of the light.

For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000 microwatts per square centimeter when measured at 15 inches from the filter face (requirements can vary from 800 to 1200). The required check should be performed when a new bulb is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours if in continuous use. Regularly checking the intensity of UV lights is very important because bulbs loose intensity over time. In fact, a bulb that is near the end of its operating life will often have an intensity of only 25 percent of its original output. Black light intensity will also be affected by voltage variations, so it is important to provide constant voltage to the light. A bulb that produces acceptable intensity at 120 volts will produce significantly less at 110 volts.

Ambient White Lighting

When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to keep white light to a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect fluorescent indications. Light levels of less than 2 fc are required by most procedures with some procedures requiring less than 0.5 fc at the inspection surface. When checking black light intensity at 15 inches a reading of the white light produced by the black light may be required to verify white light is being removed by the filter.

White Light for Indication Confirmation

While white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures may require that indications be evaluated under white light. The white light requirements here are the same as when performing an inspection with visible particles. The minimum light intensity at the surface being inspected must be 100 foot-candles.

Light Measurement

Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. A radiometer is an instrument that translates light energy into an electrical current. Light striking a silicon photodiode detector causes a charge to build up between internal layers. When an external circuit is
connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with respect to incident light. Some radiometers have the ability to measure both black and white light, while others require a separate sensor for each measurement. Whichever type used, the sensing area should be clean and free of any materials that could reduce or obstruct light reaching the sensor.

Radiometers are relatively unstable instruments and readings often change considerably over time. Therefore, they must be calibrated regularly. They should be calibrated at least every six months. A unit should be checked to make sure its calibration is current before taking any light readings.

Ultraviolet light measurements should be taken using a fixture to maintain a minimum distance of 15 inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should be centered in the light field to obtain and record the highest reading. UV spot lights are often focused so intensity readings will vary considerable over a small area. White lights are seldom focused and depending on the wattage, will often produce in excess of the 100 fc at 15 inches. Many specifications do not require the white light intensity check to be conducted at a specific distance.

5.5 Eye Considerations

Eye Adaptation

Just as lighting is an important consideration in the inspection process, so is the eyes response to light. Scientists have recently discovered that a special, tiny group of cells at the back of the eye help tell the brain how much light there is, causing the pupil to get bigger or smaller. The change in pupil diameter is not instantaneous and, therefore, eyes must be given time to adapt to changing lighting conditions. When performing an fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, the eye must be given time to adapt to the darkness of the inspection booth before beginning to look for indications. Dark adaptation time of at least one minute is required by most procedures. Some studies recommend adaptation time of five minutes if entering an inspection area from direct sunlight. Technicians should be aware of, and adhere to, the adaptation time procedures require as it is quite easy to overlook and begin inspection before the eyes have adjusted to the darkened conditions.

Eyeball Fluorescence

When ultraviolet light enters the human eye, the fluid that fills the eye fluoresces. This condition is called eyeball fluorescence, and while it is considered harmless, it is annoying and interferes with vision while it exists. When working around ultraviolet lights, one should be careful not to look directly into lights and to hold spot lights to avoid reflection. UV light will be reflected from surfaces just as white light will and, therefore it is advisable to consider placement of lights to avoid this condition. Special filtered glasses may be worn by the inspector to remove all UV light from reaching the eyes but allowing yellow-green light from fluorescent indications to pass. Technicians should never wear darkened or photochromatic glasses as these glasses also filter or block light from fluorescent indications.

6. Example Indications

6.1 Examples of Visible Dry Magnetic Particle Indications

Eddy Current:
A current induced in a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field or moving in a fixed one.

Ultrasonic:
The study and use of pressure waves that have a frequency in excess of 20,000 Hz and therefore inaudible to the human ear.

One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resemble the actual flaw. This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection, where an electronic signal must be interpreted. When magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on the surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the crack. Flaws that exist below the surface of the part are less defined and more difficult to detect. Below are some examples of magnetic particle indications produced using dry particles.

Indication of a crack in a saw blade

Indication of cracks in a weldment

Indication of cracks originating at a fastener hole

Before and after inspection pictures of cracks emanating from a hole

Indication of cracks running between attachment holes in a hinge

6.2 Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic Particle Indications

The indications produced using the wet magnetic particles are more sharp than dry particle indications formed on similar defects. When fluorescent particles are used, the visibility of the indications is greatly improved because the eye is drawn to the "glowing" regions in the dark setting. Below are a few examples of fluorescent wet magnetic particle indications.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a cracks in a drive shaft

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a bearing

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in the crane hook

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack at a sharp radius

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in casting

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a cracks at a fastener hole

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Alternating Current (AC) :
Alternating current is current that reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals. Such current is frequently referred to as AC.

Full-Wave Rectified Single-Phase AC:
This rectified alternating current for which the rectifier is so connected that the reverse half of the cycle is 뱓urned around? and fed into the circuit flowing in the same direction as the first half of the cycle. This produces pulsating DC, but with no interval between the pulses. Such current is also referred to as single-phase full-wave DC.

Full-Wave Rectified Three-Phase AC:
When three-phase alternating current is rectified the full-wave rectification system is used. The result is DC with very little pulsation - in fact only a ripple of varying voltage distinguishes it from straight DC.

Half-Wave Rectified AC:
When a single-phase alternating current is rectified in the simplest manner, the reverse half of the cycle is blocked out entirely. The result is a pulsating unidirectional current with intervals when no current at all is flowing. This is often referred to as 밾alf-wave?or as pulsating direct current.

Single-Phase Alternating Current:
This term refers to a simple current, alternating in direction. Commercial single-phase current follows a sine wave. Such a current requires only two conductors for its circuit. Most common commercial frequencies are 25, 50 and 60 cycles per second.

Three-Phase Alternating Current:
Commercial electricity is commonly transmitted as three single-phase currents, that is, three separate currents following separate sine curves, each at 60 cycles (or other frequency) per second, but with the peaks of their individual curves one-third of a cycle apart. At least three (sometimes four) conductors are required for three-phase alternating current.

Pulsed and Impulse Current - Magnetization:
A magnetization technique utilizing short circuited AC or condenser discharged DC. Very high magnetizing currents are possible for short durations. ( 1/100 to 1/1000 sec.) without the use of transformers. A Pulsed magnetization applies high fields for brief periods. A slight variation of pulsed magnetization is impulse magnetization. Betz called this flash magnetization. Associated with electrical methods of magnetization is the heating involved when current passes through a metal. Heating may limit the field intensity achievable. To overcome this difficulty a method of short duration high intensity fields was developed. Thin walled materials can be tested without the risk of heating at contact points. This is normally used for the residual method and allows for even higher field applications as they are applied once and briefly.

In the early days of MPI it was thought that DC from storage batteries provided best test results. Since then it has been shown that variations of the AC supplies are as effective and in some cases even more desirable. An important feature of alternating current is the skin effect.

The options of current available from AC and DC generators are all that is now required. In addition to the commutator that provides us with 밼ull wave rectified?AC, there is electronic circuitry, called rectifiers, that provide us with the other modifications to the types of currents used. Only storage batteries (and Faraday뭩 Dynamo) provide true DC, all other sources we use are AC derived. Commutators and rectifiers limit or reverse negative flow so current, although its amplitude may fluctuate, flows only in one direction. For this reason rectified alternating current is considered direct and may sometimes be termed 밾alf wave DC?and 밼ull wave DC?

Ampere

This is the unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current which flows through a conductor having a resistance of one ohm, at a potential of one volt.

Ampere Turns

This term refers to the product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes of current flowing through it. This is a measure of the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil. For example: 800 amperes in a 6 turn coil = 800 x 6 = 4800 ampere turns.

Angstrom Unit

A unit of length used to express wavelength. One angstrom equals 0.00000001 cm.

Autotransformer

A special type of transformer in which the output voltage can be easily varied. The autotransformer is thus employed to adjust the primary voltage applied to the step-up transformer which produces the high voltage applied to an X-ray tube for example.

Black Light Intensity

Foot-candles of Black Light at any given point in a inspection area. Intensity of light is now more often given in units of Lux or micro-Watts per square cm.

Central Conductor

a conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in part, for the purpose of creating a circular or circumferential field in the tube or ring, or around the hole.

Circular Magnetism

When a electric current is passed through a solid magnetic conductor, a circular magnetic field is developed not only around the conductor, but also with the conductor.

Coercive Force

The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove remnant or residual magnetism and demagnetize the part.

Advantages &Disadvantages of Various Types of Magnetizing Current

Current Type	Advantages	Disadvantages
Direct Current (DC) -from DC generators and storage batteries	greater depth of penetration detects defects wholly below the surface field is uniform over part뭩 cross-section	batteries are short lived and supply relatively low currents generator sources usually provide current at higher voltages so risk arcing
Half Wave Direct Current (HWDC) single phase-from rectified AC sources	detects subsurface defects improved particle mobility	less sensitive to tight surface defects single phase limits current that can be drawn
Full Wave Direct Current (FWDC) single phase- from rectified AC sources	detects subsurface defects some particle mobility	generally no advantage over single phase HWDC and draws more current from AC line supply
Full Wave Direct Current (FWDC) three phase -from rectified AC sources	detects subsurface defects reduces current draw on each line of AC supply permits incorporation of "quick-break" circuit	equipment usually bulky less sensitive to tight surface defects
Alternating Current (AC) almost invariably single phase	skin effect concentrates field at surface increased surface defect sensitivity easier to demagnetise parts magnetized by AC particle mobility improves formation of indications	not sensitive to defects wholly below surface some specifications for testing plated components do not allow AC using the residual may mean maximum flux is not attained depending where in the cycle the current was switched off

Coil Shot

A "shot" of magnetizing current passed through a solenoid or coil surrounding a part, for the purpose of longitudinal magnetization is called a "coil shot". Duration of the passage of the current is usually very short - often only a fraction of a second.

Conductivity

This is the inverse of resistance, and refers to the ability of a conductor to carry current.

Continuous Method (Magnetic Particle)

Current and bath are applied together; that is, the indicating particles are on the part while the magnetizing current is being applied.

Coulomb

A unit of electrical charge in the 뱎ractical?system of units. It contains 3 x 109 electrostatic units of charge (see esu). A coulomb is the charge transferred by a current flow of one ampere in one second.

Dark Adaptation

The adjustment of the pupils of the eyes and internal eye changes, when one passes from a bright to a darkened space. This adjustment permits maximum seeing in the dim area. Also called "scotpic vision".

Decay (Magnetic)

As used in connection with electricity, decay is the falling off to zero of the current in an electrical circuit. Magnetic fields and electrical potentials can also decay in similar sense.

Defect

A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation or location of which makes it detrimental to the useful service of the part in which it occurs.

Demagnetization

The process of removing existing magnetism from a part.

Paramagnetic

All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Those which are attracted are called Paramagnetic. Those which are repelled are called Diamagnetic. The reaction to a magnetic field of these two classes of substances is very slight indeed. The few materials that are strongly attracted by magnetic fields are called ferromagnetic.

Direct Current (DC)

As the name implies, this term defers to an electrical current flowing continually in one direction through a conductor. Such current is frequently referred to as DC.

Discontinuity

Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as cracks, laps, seams, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of a part.

Distorted Field

The direction of a magnetic field in a symmetrical object will be substantially uniform if produced by a uniformly applied magnetizing force, as in the case of a bar magnetized in a solenoid. But if the piece being magnetized is irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a straight path or have a uniform distribution.

Domain

A substructure in a ferromagnetic material within which all the elementary magnets (electron) are held aligned in one direction by interatomic forces; if isolated, a domain would be a saturated permanent magnet.

Electro-Magnet

When a ferromagnetic material is surrounded by a coil carrying current it becomes magnetized and is called an electro-magnet.

Electromotive Force

The work or energy which causes the flow of an electric current. Expressed as volts. It should be noted that the term "force" is a misnomer. However, the term is so well established that its use continues in spite of its being incorrect.

ESU

abbreviation for electrostatic unit. A charge of one esu in free space placed 1 cm from an equal charge will repel the latter with a force of one dyne.

Evaluation

The process of deciding as to the severity of the condition after the Indication has been Interpreted. Evaluation leads to the decision as to whether the part must be rejected, salvaged or may be accepted for use.

False Indication

In nondestructive inspection, an indication that may be interpreted erroneously as a Discontinuity.

Ferromagnetic Materials

The materials which are most strongly affected by magnetism are called "ferromagnetic materials', because iron and steel exhibit the strongest magnetic characteristics of all substances.

Flash magnetization ; Pulsed and Impulse Current - Magnetization

Flaw

An imperfection in an item or material which may or may not be harmful.

Fluorescence

The emission of electromagnetic radiation by a substance as the result of the absorption of electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation having greater unit energy than that of the fluorescent radiation. Fluorescence is characterized by the fact that it occurs only so long as the stimulus responsible for it is maintained. The characteristic X-radiation emitted as a result of absorption of X-rays of higher frequency is a typical example of fluorescence.

Flux

See Magnetic Flux

Flux Density

This term means the number of flux lines per unit of area, taken at right angles to the direction of the flux. It is the measure of magnetic field strength.

Full-Wave Rectified Single-Phase AC:

This rectified alternating current for which the rectifier is so connected that the reverse half of the cycle is 뱓urned around? and fed into the circuit flowing in the same direction as the first half of the cycle. This produces pulsating DC, but with no interval between the pulses. Such current is also referred to as single-phase full-wave DC.

Full-Wave Rectified Three-Phase AC:

When three-phase alternating current is rectified the full-wave rectification system is used. The result is DC with very little pulsation - in fact only a ripple of varying voltage distinguishes it from straight DC.

Gauss

This is the unit of flux density or induction. The strength of field induced in a ferromagnetic body is described as being so many Gausses. It is usually designated by the letter "B". Numerically, one Gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter of area.

Half-Wave Rectified AC:

When a single-phase alternating current is rectified in the simplest manner, the reverse half of the cycle is blocked out entirely. The result is a pulsating unidirectional current with intervals when no current at all is flowing. This is often referred to as 밾alf-wave?or as pulsating direct current.

Hall Effect

Hall effect is the production of an e.m.f. in a conductor or semi-conductor through which a current is flowing when there is a strong transverse magnetic field.

Head Shot

The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.

Heads

A "shot" of magnetizing current passed through a part or a central conductor while clamped between the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit, for the purpose of circular magnetization of the part is called a "head shot". Duration of the passage of the current is usually less than one second.

Henry

A unit of electric inductance. It is the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive force of one volt is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uniformly at a rate of one ampere per second.

Horse-Shoe Magnet

A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a horse-shoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Usually the term applies to a permanent magnet.

Hysteresis Loop

When a material is magnetized by an outside supplied field which is alternating in direction, the graph of the induced field when taken to saturation in both directions forms a symmetric loop. The loop is called a hysteresis loop.

Impedance

This term is used to refer to the total opposition to the flow of current represented by the combined effect of resistance, inductance and capacitance of a circuit.

Indication (Magnetic)

This term refers to any magnetically held magnet particle pattern on the surface of a part being tested.

Induced Current Magnetization

Passing an alternating current through a conductor will set up a fluctuating magnetic field. If a second conductor in the form of a closed loop is placed in this field, the action of the fluctuating field moving across the conductor will set up a second alternating current of the same frequency. This is an induced current.

Inductance

When the current in a circuit is varied, the change in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor generates an electromotive force (voltage) in the circuit itself. If another circuit is adjacent to the first the change in the magnetic field of the first will generate an electromotive force in the second. The phenomenon is known as inductance - either self-inductance or mutual inductance.

Induction

Magnetic induction is the magnetism induced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside magnetizing force.

Inductive Reactance

This is the opposition, independent of resistance, of a coil to the flow of an alternating current.

Interpretation

The process of judging from an indication of a discontinuity what the cause of the Indication and the nature of the discontinuity actually are.

Leakage Field

This is the field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within a part caused by the presence of a discontinuity.

Lines of Force(Lines of Flux )

The lines that can be produced by a permanent magnet or a conductor carrying electric current by the use of a sheet of paper and iron filings are called "magnetic lines of force". These lines are imaginary lines, but the concept is convenient for describing a magnetic field. A magnetic field has an intensity of so many lines per square inch. These lines have a definite direction and always form closed loops and return back onto themselves.

Longitudinal Magnetization

Magnetization of a material in such a way that the magnetic flux runs substantially parallel to the long axis of the part, the flux path completing itself through the air outside the material, is called longitudinal magnetization. It is sometimes called bi-polar magnetization, because at least two external poles exist in longitudinal magnetization.

The longitudinal magnetization afforded by yokes and coils, although it may not be adequate to provide 100% coverage, has the advantage over circular magnetization by contacts in that risk of damage due to arcing is eliminated. It has been noted that some sensitivity to defects that are not quite perpendicular to the applied field is possible; however, as the angle increases sensitivity decreases and even using two magnetizations at right angles to each other may not provide adequate sensitivity to some defects. To overcome this shortcoming a magnetizing method was developed to permit field orientations in all directions and thereby ensure equal sensitivity to discontinuities of any orientation. The method is known as multidirectional magnetization or the swinging field method.

Loop

This term refers to a single turn of wire or cable used to carry electric current. It is used for magnetizing and demagnetizing purposes.

Magnet

Materials that show the power to attract iron and other substances to themselves, and that exhibit polarity, are called magnets.

Magnetic Dipoles

A bar divided to the limiting case of finite magnetic moment is a magnetic dipole. Any magnet can then, as far as its external field is concerned, be considered as being made up of a number of dipoles.

Magnetic Discontinuity

This refers to a break in the magnetic uniformity of the part - a sudden change in permeability. A magnetic discontinuity may not be related to any actual physical break in the metal, but it may produce a magnetic particle indication.

Magnetic Field

The space around a magnet within which ferromagnetic materials are attracted is called a magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux

The total number of magnetic lines existing in a magnetic circuit is called "magnetic flux".

Magnetic Force

In magnetic particle inspection the magnetizing force is considered to be the total force tending to set up a flux in a magnetic circuit. It is usually designated by letter "H".

Magnetic Intensity

The magnetic moment per unit volume; also referred to as simply the magnetism. Also, the pole strength per area of cross-section. Units are ergs/oersted cm.

Magnetic Loop

If a conductor carrying an electric current is bent in a loop, the magnetic lines of force enter on one side of the loop and leave at the other, and the space within the loop is found to contain a magnetic field which has very definite directional properties. Polarity is created within the coil with one end being a north pole and the opposite end a south pole. The space enclosed by the loop is longitudinally magnetized.

Magnetic Materials

Materials are affected by magnets in two general ways. Some of them are attracted by a magnetic, while others exert a repellent force. The first is called "paramagnetic" and the latter "diamagnetic". In magnetic particle inspection we are not ordinarily concerned with either of the two classes, but with what may be termed a subdivision of the first class called "ferromagnetic materials'.

Magnetic Moment

If a magnet with poles of strength p located near each end and separated by distance is put into a uniform field H at an angle of 90 degrees, the magnet will tend to turn parallel to the field. When H = 1 oersted and the angle is 90 degrees, the magnetic moment is given by m = p.

Magnetic Poles

The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is not uniform over its surface, but is concentrated at local areas called "poles". Each magnet has at least two poles, one the north pole of the magnet, and the other which is attracted by the earth's South Pole and is called the south pole of the magnet.

Magnetic Writing

False indication formed by magnetic particles where local poles have been formed as a result of two pieces of steel coming into contact with each other when either are in a permanently magnetized condition but not to the same degree.

Magnetically Hard Alloy

A ferromagnetic alloy capable of being magnetized permanently because of its ability to retain induced magnetization and magnetic poles after removal of externally applied fields; an alloy with high coercive force. The name is based on the fact that the quality of the early permanent magnets was related to their hardness.

Magnetically Soft Alloy

A ferromagnetic alloy that becomes magnetized readily upon application of a field and that returns to practically a nonmagnetic condition when the field is removed; an alloy with the properties of high magnetic permeability, low coercive force and low magnetic hysteresis loss.

Magnetism

Magnetism is a property of matter. The ability of matter to attract other matter to itself is called magnetism.

Magnetizing Force

For the purpose of this discussion, magnetizing force is considered to be the total force tending to set up a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. It is usually designated by the letter "H" and the unit is the "Oersted".

Magnetograph

A magnetograph is a picture of a magnetic field made by the use of iron powder under conditions that allow it to arrange itself into the pattern of the field.

Multi-Directional Magnetization

swinging field

Two separate fields, having different directions, cannot exist in a part at the same time. But two or more fields in different directions can be imposed upon a part sequentially in rapid succession. When this is done magnetic particle indications are formed when discontinuities are located favourably with respect to the directions of each of the fields, and will persist as long as the rapid alternations of field direction continue. This, in effect, does constitute two or more fields in different directions at the same time, and enables the detection of defects oriented in any direction in one operation.

Multidirectional methods can provide reduced inspection times, improved sensitivity and simple quick demagnetiztions. However, since the field is constantly changing the field direction that is optimum for a particular orientation of defect is there only momentarily. This requires the inspection medium (particles) to be applied constantly during magnetization. This means observation must be continuous as well since the indication formed will not have the magnetizing force fixed to hold the particles in place. The fluid bath used to apply the particles could wash the indication away.

Nonrelevant Indications

These are true indications produced by leakage fields. However, the conditions causing them are present by design or accident, or other features of the part having no relation to the damaging flaws being sought. The term signifies that such an indication has no relation to discontinuities that might constitute defects.

Oersted

A unit of field strength which produces magnetic induction, designated by the letter "H". The Oersted and the Gauss are numerically equal in air or in a vacuum. Oersted (H) refers to the magnetizing force tending to magnetize an unmangetized body, and Gauss refers to the field (B) so induced in the body.

Ohm

The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. It is the value of a resistance that will pass one ampere of current at a potential of one volt.

Overall Magnetization

A method of magnetizing very large castings using elaborate electrical equipment. Equipment uses very high amperage (20,000 amps. typically), high duty cycle, three phase full wave rectified AC. Fields applied are multidirectional, and expendable fluorescent particles are used.

Paramagnetic

All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Those which are attracted are called Paramagnetic. Those which are repelled are called Diamagnetic. The reaction to a magnetic field of these two classes of substances is very slight indeed. The few materials that are strongly attracted by magnetic fields are called ferromagnetic.

Permanent Magnets

A body which possesses the ability to retain or hold a large amount of the applied magnet field after the active power of the field is removed.

Permeability (Magnetic)

The ease with which a magnetic field or flux can be set up in a magnetic circuit. It is not a constant value for a given material, but is a ratio. At any given value of magnetizing force, permeability is B/H the ratio of flux density. B, to magnetizing force H.

Prods

Two hand-held electrodes which are pressed against the surface of a part to make contact for passing magnetizing current through the metal. The current passing between the two contacts creates a field suitable for finding defects with magnetic particles.

If a part is too large to put onto a bench testing unit, then local magnetization can be done. One method of such local magnetization is by use of prods. These are usually copper posts on the ends of the conductors from the magnetic particle machine. The hand held prods are held against the test piece as shown in Figure 4-4 and a circular field results with the current applied.

Discontinuities parallel to the line between the prods are made visible by the magnetic particles. This has long been a useful technique in MPI. It is readily portable and therefore convenient for field use. The sensitivity to subsurface defects is greater with this method than any other especially when using half wave rectified current.

There are, of course, disadvantages to the prod technique as well. First, only small sections can be tested at a time, typically only 30cm or smaller spacing can be used. This small spacing is needed since the useful field is restricted to the area nearest the prod contact points. Another limitation is the magnetic field associated with the prods themselves. This can interfere with the magnetic field formed in the part. Thirdly, as with the direct method in the bench type apparatus, there is always a problem with arcing due to the high resistance at the contact points. Burning is an especially high concern in high carbon content parts.

All such contact methods, because they do risk arcing, have switches built into them to turn the magnetizing current on and off. This allows the operator to ensure good contact is made prior to applying the current.

Quantum

If the magnitude of a quantity is always an integral multiple of a definite unit, then that unit is called the quantum of the quantity. The photon is a quantum of the electromagnetic field and the meson is considered to be the quantum of the nuclear field.

Rectifier

A tube or circuit capable of converting the high voltage alternating wave form into a usable unidirectional voltage wave form.

Reluctance

Reluctance refers to the degree of difficulty or resistance of a material to magnetize.

Residual Field

This is the field left in a piece of ferromagnetic material when the magnetizing force is reduced to zero.

Residual Method

Bath is applied after current has been shut off; that is, the indicating particles are on the part when residual (remaining) magnetic field is present.

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of an electrical current through a conductor. Its unit is the ohm.

Resultant Field ; Vector Field

When two or more magnetizing forces operating in different directions are simultaneously applied to a ferromagnetic material, a resultant field is produced, having a direction which is determined by the relative strengths and directions of the applied magnetizing forces. Such a field is also referred to as a vector field. If either or both of the applied magnetizing forces are themselves varying in direction or amount, the resultant field is moving or swinging in direction and strength. Such a moving resultant field is sometimes referred to as a "swinging field".

Retentivity

Retentivity is the property of a given material of retaining, to a greater or lesser degree, some amount of residual magnetism.

RMS Value of Current

Root mean square or square root of the mean square value. For alternating current single phase, this works out to be 0.707 of the peak value. It can also apply to voltage.

Saturation

This term refers to that degree of magnetization where a further increase in H produces no further increase in the field in a given material other than is produced in air. This is point "a" on the hysteresis curve.

Seeability

The characteristic of an indication that enables an observer to see it against the adverse conditions of background, outside light, etc.

Sensitivity

The smallest quantitative increment detectable in using a measuring instrument.

Single-Phase Alternating Current:

This term refers to a simple current, alternating in direction. Commercial single-phase current follows a sine wave. Such a current requires only two conductors for its circuit. Most common commercial frequencies are 25, 50 and 60 cycles per second.

Skin Effect

An important feature of alternating current is the skin effect. This is explained by Lenz's Law which states "when an EMF is induced in a conductor by any change in the relation between the conductor and the magnetic field, the direction of the EMF is such as to produce a current whose magnetic field will oppose the change". This principle is commonly applied to eddy current testing but it has direct implications to MPI using AC. The alternating current generates a magnetic field inducing a field within a test piece. The current produced an opposition to its flow because the EMF associated with the induced current opposes the applied field.

Standard depth of penetration is the depth at which the eddy current density is 37% of the surface density. This is also called the skin depth.

The result of the skin effect is to concentrate magnetizing flux at the surface of the test piece. From the equation it can be seen that skin depth increases as frequency decreases. In fact, when f=0, as in true DC, the skin depth is infinite. More appropriately it indicates a fairly even distribution through the part thickness when using DC. Even at 60Hz, penetration is not great due to the permeability of the materials tested. Steel has typically ?sub>r = 100 resulting in a skin depth of only 2 to 3mm.

Solenoid

A solenoid is a coil consisting of a number of loops of wire or cable to carry electric current. It may be used for both magnetizing and demagnetizing purposes.

Surge Magnetism

During a continuously applied current flow of lower current, a very brief surge of much higher current is allowed to flow. The current is then reduced to the lower steady value. This establishes a higher flux at the "steady level" than possible without the surge.

Susceptibility

The ratio of the intensity of magnetism, M to the applied field, H. Symbol K (Greek Kappa). K = M/H.

Suspensoid

A liquid in which particles are suspended.

Swinging Field Magnetization

Special equipment allows two or more currents in different directions to be applied simultaneously. This permits locating discontinuities in more than one direction and shortens inspection time.

Temporary Magnets

A body of normally a soft steel or piece of iron which is readily magnetized but retains only a very small field after the active power of the external magnetic field is removed.

Tesla

MKSA form of magnetic flux density. 1 Tesla = 1 Weber per square metre = 10 Gauss (see table on units and conversions, chapter 2 Figure 2-6).

Three-Phase Alternating Current:

Commercial electricity is commonly transmitted as three single-phase currents, that is, three separate currents following separate sine curves, each at 60 cycles (or other frequency) per second, but with the peaks of their individual curves one-third of a cycle apart. At least three (sometimes four) conductors are required for three-phase alternating current.

Timed Shot Technique

Some rectifying systems tend to overheat with continued use. A unit equipped with timed shot capabilities stops the magnetizing current after a predetermined duration while the start button is depressed. This regulates the duty cycle and prevents overheating.

Transient Currents

These currents are of short duration, generated by sudden changes in the electrical or magnetic conditions existing in an electrical or magnetic circuit.

Resultant Field ; Vector Field

When two or more magnetizing forces operating in different directions are simultaneously applied to a ferromagnetic material, a resultant field is produced, having a direction which is determined by the relative strengths and directions of the applied magnetizing forces. Such a field is also referred to as a vector field. If either or both of the applied magnetizing forces are themselves varying in direction or amount, the resultant field is moving or swinging in direction and strength. Such a moving resultant field is sometimes referred to as a "swinging field".

Volt

The volt is the unit of electromotive force which tends to cause an electric current to flow through a conductor.

Weber

MKSA unit for magnetic flux.

Yoke ; permanent magnets, electromagnets

A magnet that induces a magnetic field in the area of a part that lies between the poles. Yokes may be permanent magnets or electromagnets.

Permanent Magnet Yoke - A body which possesses the ability to retain or hold a large amount of the applied magnet field after the active power of the field is removed.

The great advantage of magnetization using permanent magnets for MPI is the portability they allow. No source of electricity is needed and they are relatively light and compact. Apart from this permanent magnets have little to offer as an MPI magnetizing method. Permanent magnets can be used as single poles or as pairs (a north and south pole) in the form of a horseshoe magnet or two bar magnets arranged with a fixed spacing. In this form they are the permanent magnet yoke. Fields used when employing permanent magnet yokes are essentially only longitudinal in nature. The piece magnetized is given north and south poles at the points of contact on the test piece. Inspection at the points of contact is not possible due to the confusing mass of particles that gather at the poles.

Figure 1 shows permanent magnets and their associated fields contacting only one pole to the test piece. It is also shown the more common use of the yoke arrangement in that both a north and a south pole are made to contact the piece. Its somewhat easier in this method to arrange the field such that suspected defects are orientated at right angles to the field.

Other limitations to permanent magnets include; the inability to vary the field strength at will, large areas cannot be magnetized with sufficient field strength to locate indications and removal of the magnet from the part is difficult if the magnet is very strong.

Electromagnetic (EM) yokes, the same shape as the permanent magnet yokes, can also be used. These are U-shaped cores of soft iron, usually laminated, with a coil wound around the base of the U. When we pass an electric current through the coil the result is a north and south pole at the ends of the core. This makes it look like a horseshoe magnet. Direct current yokes have some advantages over the permanent magnet yokes. It is possible to vary field strength using varying current and the EM yoke is also easy to place onto and remove from the part as no field exists until current is applied.

Operation of the EM yoke and of the coil method of longitudinal magnetization utilize the field that results in a solenoid. In the EM yoke the field is concentrated and directed by the laminated steel core which extends to form legs (often flexible). Coil magnetization is performed using fixed coils having the conductors housed in a holder. Often coils are made without the convenience of a fixed support by merely wrapping the cables around the test piece. This is usually done for larger or irregular shaped parts.

Unlike permanent magnets, yoke and coil magnetizations can be varied in strength (as well as switched off and on). Sensitivity of the test relies not only on the amount of current and number of turns, but also on the ratio of the test part cross-sectional area to the coil area where the part is placed into the coil. The ratio is called the fill factor and it is recommended that the fill factor not exceed 10%.When using coils another consideration is length of coil with respect to the part length.

When testing a part, only a single orientation of defect may be expected, however other orientations might occur. An effective MPI test usually involves tests in more than one direction. Weld inspections using yokes are usually done using an "X" pattern thereby inducing longitudinal magnetizations in 2 directions at right angles to each other.

Permanent Magnets

Yokes and Coils for Longitudinal Magnetization